| (1) New Directions in
Scholarly Activities |
During the Choson period,
scholarly works were based on the study of Songrihak or
Neo-Confucianism. Scholars in metaphysics professed that
only metaphysics was correct and dismissed other
learnings. They dismissed not only Buddhism, but the
philosophy of Wang Yang-ming which was one current in
Confucianism, and concentrated on metaphysics alone. As
a result, while it is true that metaphysics developed in
Choson and obtained deeper roots, it is also true that
by placing too much of a bias on the metaphysical theory
alone, an atmosphere encouraging the free development of
scholarly activities was not present.
In spite of the
fact that the country's social and economic problems
were greatly affected by the damage of the two wars of
Waeran and Horan and the livelihoods of the people
greatly endangered, metaphysics, which concerned itself
with philosophical questions, could not provide the
answers to these difficult realities.
At this
juncture, there arose a new movement in scholarly
learning. To rectify the misaligned metaphysical and
Yangban-centered reality and to set new directions for
the country which would aid the livelihood of the
people, new thinking called "Practical Learning"
emerged. |
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| (2) The Origin and
Development of Practical Learning |
The harbingers of Practical
Learning were Han Paek-kyom and Yi Su-kwang; however,
the actual leaders of Practical Learning who brought its
ideas to fruit as a new thought were Yu Hyong-won and Yi
Ik. They did not take positions as government officials,
but made efforts in rural communities to nurture
disciples in order to create opportunities for the
development of this movement. Yu Hyong-won wrote the
Pan'gye surok and Yi Ik was the author of Songho sasol,
which was written in an encyclopedia form.
In the
early 17th and 18th centuries, scholars of Practical
Learning dealt mainly with the problems in rural areas,
and from the latter 18th century to the early 19th
century, scholars dealt with researching economic,
technological, and social problems. Furthermore, around
the 19th century, these scholars led efforts to build
the axes of Han'gukhak (Koreanology) with studies in
history, geography, languages, and epigraphy. This
branch of Practical Learning led the scholarly world at
this time.
So Yu-gu discussed problems in agriculture
and showed the way to achieving stability in the
livelihoods of the people. Hong Tae-yong, Pak Chi-won
and Pak Che-ga insisted that agricultural and commercial
industries should be regarded as important, and for that
purpose Choson must open its posts to China, import
technology and simultaneously increase trade
activities.
Chong Yag-yong propagated structural
reforms and a theory of industrial restoration based on
these two positions. His scholarly activities
contributed to the understanding of science, medicine,
religion and Confucianism. There was not any field which
was left untouched by his scholarly work. He wrote 500
volumes of books including the Mogmin simso, Humhum
shinso and Kyongse yup'yo and achieved a synthesis of
Practical Learning. |
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| (3) Developments in Kukhak
(national learning) and the Significance of Practical
Learning |
Scholars of the school of
"on-the-spot survey" which was one of the trends in
Practical Learning believed that people must achieve an
academic understanding of the realities and culture of
their country. They strove to conduct academic research
concerning the country.
Yi Chong-hwi, Yu Tuk-kong,
Han Ch'i-yun, and An Chong-bok studied history, and Sin
Kyong-chun, Yi Chung-hwan, Kim Chong-ho studied
geography. Chong Sang-ki and Kim Chong-ho drew maps of
Korea, but Kim Chong-ho is particularly well known for
the creation of a map known as the "Taedong yojido"
which was made through actual field studies and had a
variety of practical uses. |
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Taedong yojido : Dating back to 1861, it is
the oldest detailed map of
Korea | |
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Many scholars also studied
Korea's language. The works of Sin Kyongchun and Yu Hui
are famous. Springing from an interest in history, Kim
Chong-hwi concentrated on studying the epigraphs on
stone monuments. As the sphere of cultural activities
expanded and scholarly interest in each of the fields
increased, many encyclopedia-like books appeared.
Yi
Ik's Songho sasol, Yi Tok-mu's Ch'ongchanggwan chonso,
So Yuku's Imwon kyongje-chi, Yi Kyu-kyong's Oju yonmun
changjon san'go and the palace-authorized Tongguk munhon
pigo are representative examples of such works. Ch'oe
Han-ki, during the reign of Honjong, was a scholar
comparable to Chong Yag-yong who wrote hundreds of books
on the subjects of government, geography, science,
medicine, and mathematics.
Through the scholarly
activities of these scholars throughout the 18th and
19th centuries, many measures concerning government
administration and improvements in the welfare of the
people were presented. The activities of field studies
also greatly contributed to national development. These
scholarly activities displayed an awareness of
approaching modern times and a national consciousness,
but were still not completely rid of the influence of
metaphysics. In addition, because scholars were not in
positions to influence policy making, their advancements
didn't affect the actual lives of the people.
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| (4) Developments in
Science and Technology |
As the sphere of cultural
activities expanded, various industrial activities
became active and developments in science and technology
and medicine occurred. In addition, Western technology
and medicine were partially accepted.
Books based on
studies of agricultural technologies were reprinted.
Among them were: Sin Sok's Nongga chipsong, a technical
guide to paddy farming; Pak Se-dang's Saekkyong, a guide
to fruit farming, tree planting, livestock farming,
floriculture, irrigation and weather; and So Yu-ku's
Imwon kyongje-chi, a book dealing with agriculture,
forestry, livestock farming, sericulture, food
processing, food preservation, clothing, eating, and
housing. In addition, Haedong nongso came out as a book
which systematized the agricultural sciences of Korea on
the basis of such theories of agricultural technologies
and management. |
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A
1801 report stating the completion of Suwon
Castle |
Crane
: created by Chong Yag-yong
(1752-1836), it's
mechanism is based on the theory of the
pinwheel. | |
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Chong Yak-chon, a pragmatist
who went to the island of Huksan to study marine
products, researched 155 varieties of fish which he
collected and catalogued into a book, Chasan
obo.
Many new theories also developed in the fields
of astronomy and divination, which are closely related
to agriculture. Yi Su-kwang introduced new theories
based on his observations of solar and lunar eclipses,
tides and other natural phenomena. Kim Sok-mun and Hong
Tae-yong advocated a theory of heliocentricity and
criticized the traditional geocentric world view.
Kim
Yuk introduced the Western calendar from China and put
it to use. It is a well-known fact that Chong Yag-yong
designed a crane based on a book he read which was
imported from China. This crane was used in the
construction of Suwon Castle.
In traditional Chinese
medicine, achievements were also made with regard to its
theory and treatment methods. As basic Chinese medical
texts, Ho Chun's Tongui pogam and the Ch'imgu
kyonghombang (a book on acupuncture) are famous and
influencial even today. Research on the measles were
carried out early on and Chong Yag-yong compiled many
books on the subject in order to publish the Makwa
hoet'ong. He even experimented with vaccinations.
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"Ssirum" or Korean-style wrestling and
"Dancing Boy" by Kim Hong-to (1745~after 1814)
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| (5) Growth in the
Activities of Popular Culture |
As industrial activities
advanced and the welfare of the people improved with
changes in the social status system, the population
expressed interest in educational and cultural
activities. As their knowledge gradually grew, people
displayed creative talents in literature and the
arts.
Although there were some Sodangs (village
schools for the learning of Chinese classics) in the
early period of Choson, in the latter period, there was
hardly a single village which did not have its own
Sodang which was run and maintained by the local
population. Sodangs were the institutions of primary
education which taught Confucianism and
history.
P'ansoris and other songs indigenous to
Korea appeared. These accurately reflected the cultural
tastes of the people and contained lyrics from novels
and folktales. In addition, the Ch'ang-guk developed, a
type of operatic theater which the general population
greatly enjoyed, and the mask theaters which made fun of
the Yangbans were very popular since they expressed the
sentiments of the people.
Within the women's society,
traditional social activities were frowned upon. So,
some ladies, who were learned, composed novels and short
poems for songs in Han'gul. |
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"inwang chesekdo : Clear Skies over Mount
Inwang."
by Chong
Son(1751) | |
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| (6) New Movements in
Literature |
Illustrious Yangban
officials exerted most of their energy studying Chinese
literature. In opposition to the Yangban's interest in
Chinese Literature, the pragmatists believed that the
origins of Confucianism must be rediscovered. Thus, a
movement to restudy the classics arose. There also
appeared a new movement to use colloquial and everyday
language and throw away the old conventions. Pak
Chi-won's Yolha Diary is a work which was written in
this new style.
In the late 18th century, the middle
class and illegitimate sons of Yangbans engaged in
literary activities in order to raise their social
status. They revealed the historical origins of the
middle class, composed biographies of representative
personages, and published anthologies of poems and
songs. The Kyusa (History of the Sun Flower) and Ihyang
Kyonmullok (Experiences in Foreign Countries) are
representative of such biographies and the Ch'onggu
yong'on, Haedong kayo and Haedong yuchu are anthologies
of poems and songs.
The most conspicuous features of
literary activities during the latter period of Choson
are the appearance of works which display a popular
consciousness and have been written to meet popular
tastes. Examples are narratives, novels and the
pansoris.
Tales such as the Taedong yasung and
T'aep'yong kwanggi were composed. Among novels, Pak
Chi-won's Hosaeng-jon and Hojilmun (Tiger's Reprimand)
as well as works by Yangbanjon were written in Chinese
characters. But Ho Kyun's Hong Kil-tong-jon, Kim
Man-chung's Kuunmong (Dream in Nine clouds) and Sassi
namjonggi (Southern Expedition), Changhwa hongnyon-jon
(Rose and the Red Lotus), K'ongjwi P'atjwi-jon, Sim
Ch'ong-jon, Hungbu-jon, Sukhyang-jon and Ch'unhyang-jon
were written in Han'gul and read widely by women and
common men. Pansoris were especially favored during the
latter period of Choson. Ch'unhyang-ga, Chokbyok-ga,
Simch'ong-ga, T'okki t'aryong (Song of the Hare) are the
most popular pansoris. The man who became famous for the
creation and arrangement of many Pansoris is Sin
Chae-hyo. |
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"Women on Tan'o Day ." by Shin Yun-bok
(1758~?)
Five album leaves. ink and colors on
paper. | |
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| (7) New Trends in Art
Activities |
In painting, a new trend
arose. Korean landscapes in true life form were drawn.
This genre of painting of peculiar customs of everyday
life was in vogue and tales which were made popular by
the common people laid the groundwork for such
paintings.
The pioneers of true life landscape
paintings were Chong Son and Sim Sa-hong of Hwawon. Kim
Hong-to and Sin Yun-bok of Hwawon are also famous as
genre painters depicting the lives of the people in the
farming villages and cities. Kim Tuk-sin and Kim
Sok-sin, two brothers, were also genre painters who
possessed similar styles of painting.
Among civilian
scholars, there were many who displayed outstanding
talents in drawing. Among them, Kang Se-hwang, Sin Wi
and Kim Chong-hui were particularly well known. There
were also changes in the Yangban culture of calligraphy.
Calligraphers of the past were not able to break away
from the influence of Chinese calligraphers, but Kim
Chong-hui succeeded in developing a peculiar style of
calligraphy known as Ch'usa. |
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<===
"Orchids" by Kim Chong-hui
(1786~1857). Hanging scroll, ink or
paper. |
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A 16th
century white porcelain vase with a pinetree,
deer, crane, and clouds, all symbols of
longevity.
===>
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In the latter period of
Choson, white porcelain was chiefly developed.
Originally, white porcelain was forbidden to the common
people, but in the latter period of Choson, white
porcelain was freely sold, and even the common people
were able to buy and utilize it. Among wares made in
white porcelain, landscapes, flowers and grass were
drawn on Ch'onghwa paekcha. They were used as jars,
flower vases and water bottles. Among wooden goods,
stationery cases, cabinets, tables, and small dining
tables were the chief items used in everyday
life.
Among the architectual works of the latter
period of Choson, the most representative with its
beautiful and solid structure is the castle of Suwon.
Others which still remain today are the Maitreya Palace
in the Kumsansa Temple, Taeung-jon in the Sogwangsa
Temple, Kakhwang-jon of the Hwaomsa Temple and
P'alsang-jon in the Popchusa Temple. |
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The
Maitreya Hall at Kumsansa Temple is the only in
Korea with a triple stories roof. |
P'alsangjon, Popchusa Temple : built during
the Shilla Dynasty under King Chinhung,
reconstructed in
1626. | |
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Suwon
castle, Suwon city, Kyonggi province.
Built
from 1794 to 1796, the castle has been designated
Historic Site No.
3. | |
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