| (1) Growth of the Ideas of
Enlightenment |
During the period of the
port openings, new ideas of enlightenment spread rapidly
among some of Choson's intelligentsia.
These
modernization ideas were spawned internally by
pragmatism and developed in the latter period of Choson.
It was conceived as a new recognition of the world
situation. Such ideas were formed in the early 1870's
and representative scholars of enlightenment included
Pak Kyusu, O Kyong-sok and Yu Hong-ki. These men had
traveled to China and witnessed the changes of Western
civilization as well as the international situation, and
therefore advocated the opening of Choson's doors and
the introduction and utilization of Western
technologies.
The enlightenment ideas were later
widely accepted and espoused by young bureaucrats. Kim
Ok-kyun, Hong Yong-sik, Pak Yong-hyo, So Chae-p'il and
So Kwang-pom, who had all received training from the
first enlightenment thinkers, promoted political and
economic reforms. Their greatest interests were in the
areas of modern scientific technology, the munitions
industry and industrial organization.
They believed
that the reasons behind Choson's lagging developments in
scientific technology and industry were the political
and social institutions and they, therefore, advocated
reforms for these structures. These men proposed a
change in the present political system of monarchy to a
constitutional monarchy, appointing persons regardless
of their social status, and in the economic sphere,
promoting modern industries through the development of
railroads, steamships and telegraph communications. The
realization of these goals were the reasons for the Coup
d'Etat of 1884.
The enlightenment movement confronted
opposition from the conservative forces and, thus, was
unable to develop smoothly. As time went on, the ideas
of enlightenment spread throughout society and state to
become an important ideological base for the modern
reform movement. |
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A
missionary group of the Northern Methodist Church
led by Henry G. Apeenzeller of the United States
opened the first missionary high school, Paechae,
in 1866. | |
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| (2) Propagation of Modern
Education |
The first modern school in
Korea was established in 1883. The education institute,
Tongmunhak, was established in Seoul to mainly teach
foreign languages to train interpreters.
In Wonsan,
the Wonsan haksa was set up with support from the
bureaucrats of the enlightenment school to teach foreign
languages, geography, history and natural science. The
government also established the Yukyong kongwon in Seoul
and invited Homer Hulbert and other such Americans to
instruct the sons of the Yangban in foreign languages,
mathematics, natural sciences, history, government and
other modern academic fields.
Western missionaries in
Korea founded schools as a means of spreading their
religion and engaged in educational activities. Henry
Gerhart Appenzeller founded the Paechae haktang, Mary
Scranton founded the Ewha haktang, Horace Grant
Underwood founded the Kyongsin hakkyo, Ellia founded the
Chongsin yohakkyo, and Horace N. Allen, chief physician
to King Kojong, established a medical school called the
Kwanghyewon to provide education along with clinical
care.
The Western missionaries established schools
and provided education in order to propagate
Christianity and to train Christian workers. It is
widely believed that a great contribution was made to
the enlightenment movement through these contacts with
modern education and thinking.
After the peasant
movement, the government made various reforms in various
fields including education. The government promulgated
the Royal Edict on Education which urged the people to
train themselves in intellectual, moral and physical
faculties in order to become loyal subjects and
patriotic citizens. In addition, it created a modern
educational system, and established elementary schools,
foreign language schools, middle schools, medical
schools, military schools, in addition to agricultural,
commercial and industrial schools. In this way, Korea
turned out many young men and women possessing knowledge
in modern academic fields. |
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| (3) Induction of Modern
Science and Technology |
With the opening of the
Korean ports, some Western ideas of scientific knowledge
and technologies were accepted. In the medical field,
Chi Sog-yong introduced vaccination methods and
established a vaccination bureau in Chonju, Kongju and
Taegu to improve public health.
There were
developments in agricultural technology as well. An
Chongsu blended our traditional farming methods with
foreign farming technology and wrote a new farmer's
handbook. The government established experimental
agricultural and livestock farms in order to propogate
new skills.
For the promotion of modern industrial
technical training, various agencies were set up. In
1880, the government established a mechanical plant, a
telegraph exchange, and a cocoonery, and civilians built
textile plants, reeling factories, and ironworks.
Telegraph lines were connected between Seoul, Inch'on
and Uiju and a domestic set of codes were
invented.
Such accommodations in modern science and
technology were carried out even more actively by the
Taehan Cheguk government. Telephones, electric lights,
street cars and railroads were constructed and a new
style of architecture such as the stone palace of
Toksukung Palace was introduced.
However, since these
modern facilities were made in order to accommodate
foreign aggression into Korea, opposition movements
began to spring up among the people. |
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| (4) Expansion of Faith
Movements |
| After the opening of the
ports, social and economic changes as well as political
suffering brought about a new awakening among the people
and the various religious movements. In particular, the
idea of Tonghak, which was created to counter the
influence of Western religions, was widely propagated
among suffering peasants and by early 1890. Its
influence stretched throughout the entire nation.
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Saemunan church :
Established in
September 1887, it was Korea's first
church | |
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Catholicism and
Protestantism were at first prohibited, but with the
signing of a treaty with France in 1886, the practice of
these religions was permitted. Of course, there were
many people who secretly practiced and believed in these
faiths prior to the treaty. In particular, Catholicism,
which was introduced to Choson 100 years before this
time, had spread widely in spite of severe persecution.
However, with enlightenment and concomitantly, the
propogation of freedom of religion, many churches were
established in Seoul and the countryside. Moreover, many
missionaries arrived in Choson to engage in religious
conversion as well as education and medical
activities.
Tonghak and Christianity aided in
spreading the concept of equality and raising a modern
consciousness among the people. The Peasant War of 1894
was deeply influenced by the thoughts of Tonghak and the
enlightenment movement was greatly influenced by
Christianity. However, Christianity also played a role
in drawing Western forces into Korea. |
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Taechosun Tongnip hyop'hoe Hoebo.
First
published in November 1896 as the official
publication of the Tongnip hyop'hoe (Association
for independence), the newspaper ran editorials on
a wide range of governmental affairs in order to
instill patriotism among the
people. |
Taehan Maril Sinbo :
Co-published by
E.T. Bethell, a Briton, and Yang Ki-tak in 1904.
The newspaper played an important role in
inspiring patriotism and educating the
public.
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| (5) Rise of the Ideology
of Civil Rights |
With the growth of
enlightenment, awareness of human freedom and rights was
heightened. In the premodern society, where there was a
legal and socially rigid distinction between Yangbans
and Sangnoms, civil rights for the people could not
exist. However, from the latter period of Choson when
the social status system began to crumble, the ideas of
equality and freedom began to take root in Korea. These
ideas were more actively pursued with the spread of
Western and Tonghak thoughts.
The Independence
Council was most ardent in its cries for civil rights.
The Council combined the theories of the enlightenment
thinkers and advocated the individual's right to live,
freedom to own property, freedom of speech and assembly,
and the people's rights of sovereignty and participation
in government. They believed that in order to gain
independence and establish a wealthy and powerful
nation, the rights of the people would have to be
improved first. These positions were strengthened in the
process of the Japanese invasions of Choson and
developed into the ideas of democratic republicanism,
the belief that sovereignty rests with the people.
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| (6) Booming Media and
Cultural Activities |
The first newspaper
published in our country was the Hansong Sunbo
(1883).
The government, which was promoting its
enlightenment policies, established and distributed the
Pak Mun-guk in order to spread enlightenment ideas. The
paper was first published in Chinese characters, but
later, Han'gul articles were added to aid in the
distribution of new knowledge. However, since it
possessed the characteristics of an official gazette, it
was not a profitable operation and ceased publication
after five years.
Private citizens began to publish
newspapers after the Independence Council was organized.
The Independence Council, composed of enlightenment
thinkers, printed the Independent in 1896 in pure
Han'gul and thus, was widely read by the masses. It was
full of editorials inspiring reform, introducing new
knowledge and informing to the people of domestic and
foreign affairs.
The Independent was published for
three years but was dissolved due to government
oppression. But afterwards, the Hwangsong Sinmun, Taehan
Maeil-Sinbo, and Cheguk Sinmun were published and played
important roles in denouncing Japanese aggression and
inspiring patriotism. The enlightenment movement also
influenced cultural activities. The new intellectuals
did not stop with merely accepting Western teachings,
but rearranged Korea's traditional culture as well.
History books were printed in large numbers and new
styles appeared in art and music. Many textbooks were
also compiled in order to teach students in each school.
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