| (1) Restructuring Domestic
Politics and Expulsion of Foreign Aggressors
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Around 1860, the Choson
Dynasty faced difficult external and internal problems.
Internally, the foundation of national law and order
weakened as a result of "Sedo" politics. This period,
which spanned 60 years, saw the manifestation of both
severe poverty among the Korean population and ceaseless
rebellions in various parts of the country. Externally,
Catholicism spread far and wide throughout the country
and foreign ships appeared on Korea's coasts to request
commercial activities with the Choson Dynasty.
Such
domestic and foreign conditions spawned feelings of
crisis throughout the whole nation. Thus, the Korean
people demanded that the government stabilize the
livelihood of the people, check the inroads into Choson
by western powers, and bring national peace. At that
time, the Hungson Taewon-kun, the Regent, who
represented King Kojong who was a child at the time,
courageously enforced reforms in order to overcome
internal and external crisises confronting the
nation.
In order to get rid of the evils of "Sedo"
politics, he promoted persons without making references
to political party or family affiliations, and in order
to reduce the burdens of the people and solidify the
basis of the nation's economy, he reformed the tax
system. In order to establish order through law and
strengthen royal authority, he also reorganized
government organizations, destroyed Sowons and rebuilt
Kyongbokkung Palace.
Under the rule of Hungson
Taewon-kun, the Choson government and people bravely
fought against aggressions by the Western powers. After
a month of fighting, the defenders of Choson drove out
the French army, who had invaded Kanghwa Island to
protest the persecution of Catholics in 1866. During
this period the U.S. military presence was also driven
out in 1871. The U.S. had invaded the Choson regime in
retaliation of the burning of a merchant ship on the
Taedong River in P'yong'yang. |
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Kanghwa Fortress, assaulted by the French
in 1866, has recently been restored and epuipped
with a modern
cannon. | |
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After successfully checking
aggressions by the French and American armies, the
Choson government further strengthened its closed door
policy. At important locations in Seoul and throughout
the country, monuments were erected to inspire people to
fight against aggressions by Western powers.
Furthermore, the Japanese were driven out for being
Orangk'aes (barbarians) since they maintained relations
with the West.
The anti-foreign powers policy led by
Hungson Taewon-kun received enthusiastic support from
the people, because they felt threatened by potential
aggression. However, this closed door policy was not an
adequate measure against the great current of world
affairs, and thus, it further delayed the modernization
movement of Korea. |
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| (2) Opening of Ports and
the Enlightenment Policy |
| Hungson Taewon-kun left the
government after 10 years of serving as Regent. He later
became friendly to the idea of exchanges of civilization
with foreign powers and as a result Choson's foreign
policy began to open ports and engage in commercial
activities. But before the government was fully prepared
to open its ports, Japan invaded Kanghwa Island and
demanded further openings. Consequently, Choson was
obliged to sign the first modern treaty of amity with
Japan in 1876. The government also concluded treaties of
amity and commerce with the United States, England,
Germany, Russia, France and other nations. |
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A
Chosun KingDom militia undergoing
an inspection
in SEoul | |
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Although Choson entered the
international arena by signing treaties with various
nations, the treaties signed during these times were
unfair to Choson. For through these treaties, Choson was
forced to permit the rights of low tariff rates,
extraterritoriality and residence of foreign nationals
in Choson's open ports. This in effect, prepared a
springboard for possible political and economic
aggressions against Choson by these nations.
Choson,
which signed these treaties for diplomatic and
commercial trade, made many efforts to accept the
modernity of the West.
The government dispatched Pak
Chong-yang and other officials to Japan to observe
modern institutions and industrial organizations. In
addition, it dispatched Kim Yun-sik and other
bureaucrats to China to study methods of manufacturing
modern weapons and training the army.
In order to
modernize, the Choson government revamped its political
and military organizations. The central government
established 12 ministries under the T'ongni kimu amun to
take charge of such duties as diplomacy, military and
industry. Among new developments in the army, special
military forces were organized and provided with modern
military training. Furthermore, Choson accepted the
proposals made by officials dispatched to foreign
countries to set up modern machinery plants.
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| (3) The Military Rebellion
of 1882 |
When the government
continued to promote modernization of the West,
Confucian scholars developed strong opposition
movements. They insisted on fighting the foreign powers
when France and the U.S. ships invaded Kanghwa Island
and the government signed the Treaty of Amity and
Commerce with Japan. These Confucian scholars possessed
a strong sense of subjective power, thus they advocated
the guarding of Choson's traditional culture and systems
which were believed to be superior to the West. Amid the
conflicts between the forces of reform and conservatism,
a military rebellion known as the Imo Military Rebellion
broke out in 1882. At that time, the old military was
discriminated against in comparison to the new military
(Pyolgi-gun) and were unable to receive their salaries.
When they finally received their wages in rice mixed
with sand and chaff, they rose up in rebellion. They
drove out the Queen's family (Mins), propelled reform
measures, and grasped political power by putting Hungson
Taewon-kun in power again.
However, China mobilized
troops to kidnap Hungson Taewon-kun and by oppressing
the old military, the Mins once again held political
power. In this process, interventions by China and Japan
were so severe that Choson was placed in an even more
difficult position. |
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| (4) The Coup d'Etat of the
Reform Party |
The Mins, who again took
over the government by borrowing China's strength,
utilized reform-oriented officials to enforce
progressive enlightenment policies. However, due to
increased domestic intervention and economic
exploitation by China, the policies of reform promoted
by the government could not proceed
smoothly.
Hereupon, Kim Ok-kyun and the radical
reform forces instigated changes in Choson's political
and social systems by utilizing unorthodox means. They
killed and wounded high officials of the Min family, who
were participating in a ceremony commemorating the
completion of a post office building, by utilizing some
members of the military and the Japanese army.
Additionally, they persuaded King Kojong to join their
side and thus managed to grasp political
power.
Members of the radical reform forces who were
newly appointed as government officials attempted huge
reforms in all fields in order to build Choson into a
wealthy modern nation with a powerful military. They put
forth a platform of reform and declared that they would
do away with discrimination along family lines,
establish equality for all people, amend tax laws, unify
the financial agencies, establish a police system and
modernize the administrative system.
But before these
reforms were enforced, the radical reform party was
expelled from political circles and their reform
measures dropped. The forces of conservativism borrowed
the strength of Chinese power to hold on to government
control and the forces of radical reform became
political refugees who fled to Japan and America.
The
reasons behind the failure of the radical forces were
that they failed to make thorough preparations, did not
obtain the support of the people and attempted to retain
political power through the help of Japan which always
placed them in danger of betrayal. The new Choson
government which was based on the coup d' tat pursued
policies of gradual and healthy reforms, but due to
Chinese intervention and economic aggressions by Japan,
the livelihood of the people became even more
endangered. |
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| (5) Tonghak Movement
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To check the powers of China
and Japan, the government of Choson utilized Russia.
Russia, which had just finished constructing a military
post in Vladivostok and was promoting a policy of
southward expansion, hoped to use this opportunity to
maintain military bases on Ulung Island and
Masanp'o.
But England, which hoped to counter the
southward expansion policy of Russia, dispatched a fleet
to the Far East to occupy Choson's Komun Island where
she built a military port. The government of Choson
strongly protested this unjustifiable act by England and
after many months of negotiations, forced England to
withdraw from the Island in 1887.
While Choson was
confronting the aggressions of both internal and
external forces, a new religious movement grew among the
peasants. The followers of Tonghak, who had organized a
large force, held demonstrations everywhere, in order to
clear up the accusations against the founder of the
religion, Ch'oe Che-u, who had been unjustly arrested
and put to death. In addition, they demanded that the
government allow freedom of religion, purge corrupt
government officials and drive out the Japanese and
Western forces.
The actions of the followers of
Tonghak proceeded into an all-out peasants' war-the Kobu
Rebellion (1894). The Kobu Rebellion was a limited
uprising which broke out in protest against the tyranny
and abuses of the magistrate, Cho Pyong-kap, but as a
result of the merciless oppression by the government,
all the peasants in both the north and south Cholla
provinces rose up in an uprising which spread throughout
the whole nation within a short time.
The peasant
army under the command of Chon Pong-chun annihilated the
government troops and occupied all of the Cholla
Province. The government, realizing that it was unable
to suppress the peasants' army alone, requested that
China dispatch its troops. Thus, the government promised
the peasants that it would listen to their demands and
ordered them to dissolve their troops.
At the time,
the peasants' army had demanded: the punishment of
corrupt officials, tyrannical men of wealth and
Yangbans; abolition of the social status structure;
waiver of public and private debts; equal redistribution
of land; and expulsion of Japanese forces. When the
government promised to accept the above demands, Chon
Pong-chun dispersed the peasants' army. In addition,
they organized offices in 53 counties under their
occupation so that the peasants themselves would take
part in carrying out such reforms.
While the peasant
movement was beginning to take the first steps toward a
resolution of the problems with the peace agreement
between Chon Pong-chun and the government, China and
Japan dispatched troops into Choson and the
Sino-Japanese War erupted. Japan, in particular, had
ambitions of occupying Choson and when she was convinced
that victory over China was certain, Japan mobilized its
military forces. Japan then drove China out of Choson
and marched south with the government army as its
puppets to suppress the peasant army.
The 200,000
peasant troops under Chon Pong-chun's command engaged in
repeated battles with Japan. But they were no match for
the modern Japanese army. Thus, the peasants movement,
which had had as its objectives revolutionary reform
within government and society, in addition to the
expulsion of foreign forces, ended in failure.
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| (6) Reforms in the
Political and Social Systems |
Japan which had sent troops
under the pretext of suppressing the peasant movement,
demanded that the Choson government make internal
reforms. This demand to change the political and
economic systems of Choson into Japanese-like systems
was made in order to accommodate the Japanese invasion
of Choson.
The government, which was receiving
pressure from the population for huge reforms, could not
but form some kind of proposal for reforms in the social
and political systems. Thus, the government set up a
special agency called the Kun'guk Kimuch'o, which
carried out 208 types of reforms in the government, the
economy and society (Kabo Reform).
Reforms in the
political system included separating the duties of the
palace from governmental duties, abolishing the civil
service examination, separating the judiciary from other
functions, and reorganizing local administration
systems. Economic reforms included unification of the
financial offices, improvements in the system, and
uniformity of standards of weights and measures. Among
social reforms, the social status system was abolished,
widows were permitted to remarry, and torture and
punishment for people who had affiliations with
criminals were eliminated.
There were many positive
aspects in these measures by the government to change to
the premodern political and social orders. However,
because the Japanese were behind these changes, there
was much resistance. To suppress the objections, Japan
mobilized its army and "Nang'ins" (political thugs) to
murder the Empress Myongsong in 1895.
Under
aggravated Japanese pressure, the government spurred on
with even more reforms. These included the use of the
solar calendar, enforcement of vaccinations,
establishment of primary schools, establishment of a
postal service, use of the numerical year system, and
enforcement of cutting the traditional long hair.
But
since these reforms did not reflect the will of the
people, opposition was inevitable. |
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Stamps used during the Taehan Cheguk period
(1884~1907). | |
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| The Choson people were well
aware that Japan, as a means to occupy, had demanded
internal changes and had murdered its queen. The rise of
the anti-Japanese righteous army nationwide reflected
such an atmosphere. |
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| (7) The National
Self-Reliance Movement of the Independence Council
|
As Japanese intervention in
internal affairs increased in severity, King Kojong fled
to the Russian Legation and set up a new cabinet in
1896. He also engaged the Russian forces and began to
carry out a policy to restrain the Japanese forces. The
government's pro-Russian policy was effective in
checking the Japanese forces, but it also resulted in
greatly damaging the self-reliance of the nation.
At
this juncture, some officials and people of Choson made
moves to promote national self-reliance, independence,
strengthening of the nation and free rights for the
people. This was known as the movement of the
Independence Council.
Among the important figures in
the Independence Council were So Chae-p'il, Yun Ch'i-ho
and Yi Sang-chae. They erected the Independence Arch and
Independence Hall and published a newspaper to promote a
consciousness of national self-reliance among the
people. In addition, they held discussion rallies in
Seoul and other important regional cities, denouncing
the Government's policy of depending on foreign forces
and stood in the frontlines of enlightening the people
on modern political thought.
The activities of the
Independence Council were a great impetus to the
government and the people. The Independence Council
advocated a political system composed of a
constitutional monarchy and a parliament, and in
diplomacy it called for diplomatic relations based on
the principle of self-reliant neutrality. Socially, it
advocated the promotion of people's rights, namely, the
rights to existence, freedom and equality. |
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Tongnim-mun (Independence Gate) and
Tongnip-kwan (Independence Hall). With donations
from the private sector, the Tongnip hyop hoe
(Association for Independence) erected Tongnim-mun
in 1898 as a way to instill a spirit of
independence and patriotism among the
people. | |
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At one time, the government
accepted the above proposals of the Independence Council
and adopted postures to execute them. However, the
government, feeling that the demands of the Independence
Council and the citizens were encroaching on the
privileges of the Emperor and the ruling classes,
suppressed and dissolved the Independence
Council.
Although the movement of the Independence
Council ended in failure, it contributed greatly to
planting a consciousness for modernization and national
self-reliance in the hearts of the people. This
consciousness also became the ideological basis for the
anti-Japanese movement later on. |
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The
first edition of Tongnip Sinmun(The independent) :
First published on April 7.1896 by
So Chae-pil
as the official publication of the Tongnip hyop
hoe (Association for independence), it was Korea's
first non-governmental newspaper. |
Emperor
Kojong | |
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| (8) Establishment of the
Taehan Cheguk and Policy of Self
Empowerment |
King Kojong who had taken
refuge in the Russian Legation for the past year,
returned to Kyong'unkung Palace (now Toksukung Palace)
at the height of the activities of the Independence
Council. The people renamed his country Taehan Cheguk
(the Great Han Empire) and proclaimed to the world that
Taehan Cheguk was a self-reliant nation in 1897.
Furthermore, he enforced various reforms in politics and
set about to establish a powerful and wealthy
country.
The Taehan Cheguk government expanded a
program of new education and set up a Central Council to
reflect the will of the people, but when the
Independence Council and the people expanded their
political movement, the government supressed them and
took measures to strengthen its own imperial
power.
The government promulgated nine articles of
the laws of the Taehan Cheguk which granted full
authority of command of the legislature, the executive,
and diplomacy to the Emperor and infinite imperial
authority in 1899. To establish the national economy and
improve the people's lives, it enforced policies to
carry out land surveys and encourage industries. The
establishment of various manufacturing factories,
sending students abroad, strengthening industrial
education, improving transportation as well as
communication facilities and the establishment of
hospitals were the chief policies of the Taehan Cheguk.
With the proclamation of Taehan Cheguk, the various
reform policies of the government heightened national
autonomy and aided in the wide acceptance of modern
civilization. However, severe party strife within the
government impeded these reform policies, and since they
were not consistently enforced, they were not able to
completely check interventions by foreign forces.
For
these reasons, peasants of the Yonghak-dang (offsprings
of the former peasant movement) in the Ch'ungch'ong,
Cholla, and Kyongsang provinces continued to demand
social and economic reforms. In addition, the
Hwalbin-dang forces, which were composed of merchants
and workers, sprang up in various places and demanded
social reform and the expulsion of foreign powers.
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