| (1) Founding of Choson and
Early Growth |
In the social confusion and
national crisis which ensued in the final days of Koryo,
the gentry and military explored means for establishing
a new state. With the withdrawal of the army from Wihwa
Island on the Yalu, military forces were strenghtened
and its new leaders drove out the old aristocratic
powers of Koryo and enforced a land reform program in
order to step up their economic basis. Then Chong
To-chon, Cho Chun and other powerful civilians placed Yi
Song-gye on the throne to establish a new state in
1392.
The name of the new state was Choson. This name
reflected a historical consciousness that it was
succeeding the traditions of Kojoson.
The capital was
fixed in Hanyang (now known as Seoul), located at the
center of the Korean peninsula, and the new reign strove
to win over popular support.
Choson's basic policies
were Confucianist politics, agricultural economy, and
pro-Ming diplomacy. In other words, it upheld
Confucianism in governing the nation, promoted
agricultural production in order to increase national
revenue and stabilize the lives of the people, and urged
for peace and stability by promoting friendly relations
with the Ming Dynasty, a newly rising power in the Asian
continent.
Since the national structure was
stabilized under the reigns of Kings T'aejong, Sejong
and Sejo, Choson became a Confucian state and adopted a
system of centralized power. With the completion of
Kyongguk taejon during the reign of King Songjong, laws
for government were provided.
Moreover, the national
territory as it is known today was established during
this period. During the reign of King Sejong, the
Nuzhens on the Yalu basin and the Tumens were driven
out. Four counties and six ports were set up along these
basins. With this, the Choson Kingdom, bordered by the
Yalu and Tumen Rivers, fixed its territories.
Additionally, policies of resettling people from the
southern to the northern territories was enforced for
the balanced development of the land. |
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| (2) Firm Establishment of a
Ruling Structure with Centralized Power
|
During the initial stage,
meriting vassals had grasped substantial political
power. However their powers were gradually taken away or
absorbed by the royal authority and governing powers
were centralized to the royal authority.
T'aejong
readjusted the bureaucratic structures and abolished the
practice of building private armies, and governing
powers were centralized to the King. He enforced
economic reforms in the temples and by increasing the
number of those considered citizens, he expanded the
basis of national revenues. These reforms stimulated the
growth of national culture and expansion of national
territory. King Sejong greatly contributed to the
development of the Choson dynasty through the
centralized government structure.
The supreme
administrative organization was known as the Uijongbu.
It was comprised of the Yonguijong, Chwauijong and
Uuijong. These consultative councils decided on national
policies which would have to be approved by the
King.
Under the Uijongbu, six ministries--Personnel,
Finance, Rites, Military, Justice, and
Construction--were set up as executive ministries for
national administration. In addition, Inspection and
Censor Boards as well as the Hongmun-gwan were set up to
ensure that the government ran smoothly.
As local
administrative organizations, the country was divided
into eight provinces where governors were dispatched to
take charge of their administrations. Within a province,
smaller administrative districts known as Mok, Kun and
Hyon were organized and local rulers known as Pusas,
Moksas and Hyollyongs were dispatched.
The military
service was enforced by a universal conscription system.
All male farmers above the age of 16 were obliged to
fulfill their duty of military service by bearing arms
or paying for some military expenses.
Five general
headquarters commanded the five central guards.
In
the border areas and at important military locations,
army and navy barracks were established and army and
navy commanders were dispatched from Central
Headquarters to command the fighting forces.
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| (3) Yangbans and
Bureaucrats |
The governing class of Choson
were known as Yangbans. Originally, Yangbans were
civilians and military bureaucrats who gradually became
the ruling governing class. They enjoyed many
privileges.
They advanced to become bureaucrats
through the civil service examinations, but some of the
sons of the upper level bureaucrats, who possessed many
special privileges, became bureaucrats without having to
pass the civil service examinations. |
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The
pair of tigers or cranes on these insignias were
attached to the front and back of the garments
worn by Chosun Kingdom high officials.
Military officials (left).
Civil officials
(right). | |
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Among the Yangbans, the
civilians were given preferential treatment over
military men. Also within the Yangban class, children of
illegitimate birth were discriminated against and
restricted from advancing in society.
Yangbans did
not engage in productive labor. They read the Confucian
classics or history books and lived their lives
according to Confucian rites. |
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| (4) The Policy of an
Agriculturally-Based Livelihood and the
Farmers |
Continuing the tradition of
developing agriculture as the foundation for the nation,
the Choson dynasty enforced agriculturally-based
livelihoods for farmers as the basic policy of the
state.
The government made efforts to reclaim land,
expand irrigation facilities, reform farming techniques
and raise silkworms for weaving. For these reasons,
during the early years of Choson, the amount of arable
land increased greatly, farm productivity rose to
augment state income, and the lives of the farmers
stabilized to some extent.
The system of land
distribution was based on the Kwajon system. According
to this system, bureaucrats were given pieces of land
commensurate with their ranks, as well as to government
officials. However, under the reign of Sejo, this land
distribution system was repealed and a new system known
as the Chikchon law was instituted. This system only
provided land to active bureacurats. In addition, there
were the private lands of government officials, the
crown lands, government lands, and self-owned lands of
the farmers.
All these lands were cultivated by the
farmers. Among farmers, there were those who owned the
land they tilled, but the majority of them were tenant
farmers. The tenant farmers were, by law, compelled to
offer half of their harvest to the landlords as a form
of payment for living on and tilling the land.
The
farmers were also compelled to provide taxes, imposts,
and corvee to the state. The taxes were paid in kind,
and were placed on the land. Public imposts were placed
on agricultural products particular to the locality. The
burdens of these imposts were so heavy they caused great
suffering for the farmers. |
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A
genre painting by the 18th century Sin yun-bok
depicing a village during
harvest. | |
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| Corvees were systems which
mobilized farmers for compulsory labor in the areas of
civil engineering and national defense. These were
obligatory for adults between the ages of 16 and 60
years. A large portion of the financial revenue of the
state was taxes, imposts and corvees which were paid by
farmers. |
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| (5) Commerce, Handicrafts
and Communications |
In the early period of
Choson, agricultural developments resulted from the
policy of self-sustaining, family-based agriculture. In
contrast, commerce and handicraft industries were late
in developing. In the heart of Seoul, many markets
existed including the government run Yuguijon. The
merchants of these shops obtained goods ordered from
government suppliers and even possessed monopoly rights
to sell certain items.
Shops also existed in regional
cities, but commerce was not heavy. In addition, there
were markets which opened once every five days, and
hawkers and packpeddlers known as "Pobusang" were the
main merchants. |
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Chosun period coins.
Sangpyong-t'ongbo.
17th~18th
century. | |
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In the handicraft industry,
government-run handicraft commerce activities were the
centers. Artisans were affiliated to central or local
governments and were responsible for goods needed by the
state. They produced weapons, printing types, stationery
and ceramics. Furthermore, farm households which made
handicrafts on the side were merely
self-sufficient.
Harvests in regional areas were
shipped through transportation organizations known as
the Choun mainly to Seoul. The taxes collected in kind
(grain) from the regional areas were brought to rivers
and sea ports and were transported to Seoul.
As for
transportation and communication facilities, there were
Yoks (stations) and Wons (hotels).
On the important
transportation routes, Yoks were placed at 30 li (about
10 miles) intervals and on inconvenient routes Wons were
built. Boarding and lodging facilities were provided at
Yoks, as well as the means for transmitting official
letters, transporting tributes, and other needs of the
travelling official were also provided. Travelling
officials were also privy to station horses according to
the number of horses carved on their "Map'ae" (horse
plates).
Boarding and lodging accommodations were
offered to official travelers in Wons. |
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Ancestral rites are still widely practiced
in cities and the
countryside. | |
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| (6) Confucian-centered
Policy and Education |
The Choson dynasty utilized
a Confucian-based politics based on metaphysics. The
political ideal of the era was the realization of a
King-centered state. Thus, Yangbans had to research and
receive education on Confucian culture, and only the
civilian bureaucrats who rose to position by passing the
exams on Confucianism could hope to become high ranking
bureaucrats.
The ruling class, as it propagated
Confucian-centered state policies, suppressed and
changed traditional folk beliefs and Buddhism. But
Buddhism was able to preserve its life line as the
religion of commoners. In order to propagate a Confucian
consciousness among the people, the observance of the
Zhuzi garye of crowning top-knots, marriages, funerals
and offering sacrifices was mandated. Therefore, these
Confucian ceremonies were popularized during the Choson
Dynasty. |
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Confucian ritual, held each spring and
autumn at the confucian shrine in the confucian
college of Songgyun'gwan,
Seoul. | |
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The family system was
extremely important in Confucianism with the head of the
family as the center exercising absolute powers. He
presided over the ceremony of offering sacrifices to the
ancestors of the family. The Yangbans kept family
shrines and offered sacrifices on memorial days.
In
the Choson dynasty, the Confucian virtues of loyalty and
filial piety were highly valued. Loyalists, filial sons
and exemplary women received commendations from the
state and were highly respected. Confucianism became the
center of education. Four colleges in Seoul and regional
schools taught intermediate Confucianism. The highest
learning institute, Songgyun'gwan College in Seoul
taught advanced Confucianism.
Technical education in
the fields of medicine, astronomy, law, mathematics and
foreign languages was conducted by the government.
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| (7) The Growth of
Confucian Scholars and Their Advancement to
Seoul |
| Around the time Choson had
completed the building of its institutions, during the
reign of King Songjong, a new political force appeared.
They were referred to as Confucian students (Sarimp'a).
They were influenced by the scholarly works of Chong
Mong-chu and Kil Chae, who were loyal to the royal house
of Koryo. Kil Chae trained many students in his hometown
and later, Kim Chong-chik and his students became a
force in Yongnam (Kyongsang province). |
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Tosan
sowon, North Kyongsang province.
Built in
1514. | |
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The Confucian students
studied Songri philosophy which researched the study of
human nature and discounted other learnings and thoughts
as heresy. They also valued fidelity and duty and placed
importance on the classics.
During the reign of King
Songjong, Kim Chong-chik was promoted to a high position
and the Confucian students known as Sarim-p'a made their
entrance into the central political circles and
developed the Sarim faction. This force stood in
confrontation with the conservative party (Hunkup'a) who
held the major power in the King's court at the time. As
a result of the conflict between these two forces,
social turmoil erupted on several occasions. During the
reign of King Chungjong, the Sarim party headed by Cho
Kwang-jo propelled rapid reform measures. However, the
Sarim party's reform movement which hoped to realize the
political ideals of Sarim failed as a result of
opposition by the conservatives.
Members of the Sarim
party who were forced to return to their hometowns as a
result of this defeat set up Sowons in various locations
and popularized the idea of the Hyang'yak Contract which
advocated autonomy of country villages. Sowons were
places where Confucian followers cherished the memory of
the sages by offering sacrifices. The Sarims also
conducted research, studied and educated their children
in the Sowons.
With the development of Sowons and the
propagation of the Hyang'yak Contracts, Sarim forces
gained strength and Confucian morals were widely spread
throughout country villages. In addition, through the
research conducted by the Sarim forces in metaphysics,
this field flourished in 16th century Choson.
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